×î¸ß·¨ÔºÎ»ÓÚ»ªÊ¢¶ÙµÚÒ»½Ö£¬½Ö¶ÔÃæ¼´Êǹú»á´óÏá£
²¼À×Ò®ÔÚ±»ÌáÃûΪ´ó·¨¹Ù֮ǰ£¬ÔøÈιú»á²ÎÒéԺ˾·¨Î¯Ô±»áµÄÊ×ϯ·¨ÂɹËÎÊ£¬¼ÈµÃµ½Á½µ³²ÎÒéÔ±ÈÏ¿É£¬Ò²²©È¡Á˵³ÍÅÁìÐ件ÐÄ£¬ËûµÄ´ó·¨¹ÙÌáÃûºóÀ´ÔÚ²ÎÒéÔºÒÔ87£º9µÄ¸ßƱͨ¹ý¡£
ÃܶûÎÖ»ù£¨Milwaukee£©£ºÍþ˹¿µÐÇÖݶ«Äϲ¿µÄÒ»¸ö¸Û¿Ú³ÇÊС£
ÍÐÂí˹ÊÇ×î¸ß·¨ÔºµÚ¶þλºÚÈ˴󷨹٣¬±»×ÜͳÌáÃûΪ´ó·¨¹ÙÈËÑ¡ºó£¬ËûÔø±»ÈËÖ¸¿ØÐÔò£ýÈÅ£¬Ö®ºó²»µÃ²»ÔÚÌýÖ¤»áÉϽøÐбç½â£¬È«¹ú¶à¼ÒµçÊǪ́¶Ô´Ë½øÐÐÁËÈ«³ÌÖ±²¥£¬Ïê¼û±¾ÊéµÚ2Õ¡£
ÍÐÂí˹±»ÈÎÃüΪ´ó·¨¹ÙʱÄê½ö43Ë꣬ÔÚµ±Ê±ËãÊÇ×î¸ß·¨ÔºÄÚ×îÄêÇáµÄ´ó·¨¹Ù£¨Í¬ÑùÄêÁä±»ÈÎÃüΪ´ó·¨¹ÙµÄ»¹ÓÐ֮ǰµÄ²¨ÌØ¡¤Ë¹Í¼¶ûÌØ£©£¬ËùÒÔ×÷ÕßÔÚÕâÀï³ÆËûΪ¡°ÄêÇáÈË¡±¡£²»¹ý£¬ÃÀ¹úÀúÊ·ÉÏ×îÄêÇáµÄ´ó·¨¹ÙÊÇԼɪ·ò¡¤Ë¹ÍÐÀJoseph¡¡Story£©£¬ËûÔÚ1812Äê2ÔÂ3ÈÕ±»ÈÎÃüΪ´ó·¨¹Ùʱ²Å32Ë꣬һֱ¸Éµ½1845Äê²ÅÀëÈΡ£
Èø¿ËÀÂü¶à£¨Sacramento£©£º¼ÓÀû¸£ÀûÑÇÖÝÊ׸®¡£
ÕâÀïµÄ¡°·´¸ïÃü¡°£¨Counterrevolutionary£©£¬ÓëÎÒÃÇͨ³£È϶¨µÄº¬Ò岻ͬ¡£¶ò¶û¡£ÎÖÂ×µ£ÈÎÊ×ϯ´ó·¨¹ÙÆڼ䣬ÔÚÍƶ¯ÈËȨÊÂÒµ·½Ãæ×÷³öÁËһϵÁÐÓÐÓ°ÏìÁ¦µÄÅоö£¬±»³ÆΪһ³¡¡°Ë¾·¨¸ïÃü¡±¡£²®¸ñÓëÂ׿ü˹ÌØʱÆÚ£¬×î¸ß·¨ÔºÄÚ²¿³öÏÖÁËÒ»¹ÉÊÔͼȫÃæÍÆ·ÎÖÂ×ʱ´úµÄÅÐÀý£¬ÊµÏÖ˾·¨ÅоöÏò±£ÊØÅÉÁ¢³¡»Ø¹éµÄÁ¦Á¿£¬±»³ÆΪ¡°·´¸ïÃüÊÆÁ¦¡±¡£
¾ÝÃÀ¹úýÌ屨µÀ£¬ÔÚ˹̹¸£·¨Ñ§Ôº¶ÁÊéÆڼ䣬°Â¿µÄÉÓëÂ׿ü˹ÌØ»¹ÔøÓйýÒ»¶ÎÎÞ¼²¶øÖÕµÄÁµÇ飬Èç¹ûÊôʵ£¬Ò²Ëã˾·¨Ê·ÉÏÒ»¶Î¼Ñ»°¡£
Ô¼º²¡¤ÂíЪ¶û¡¤¹þÂ׶þÊÀ£¨John¡¡Marshall¡¡Harlan¡¡II¡¡£©£ºÀ´×ÔŦԼÖÝ£¬1955Äê±»µÂ»³ÌØ¡£°¬ÉºÀÍþ¶û×ÜͳÈÎÃüΪ×î¸ß·¨Ôº´ó·¨¹Ù£¬1971ÄêÀëÈΡ£¹þÂ׶þÊÀ´ÓÊÂÂÉʦְҵʱ£¬±»³ÆΪ¡°ÂÉʦÖеÄÂÉʦ¡°£¨lawyer's¡¡lawyer£©£¬ÍËÐÝÒÔºó£¬Ôò±»ÔÞΪ¡°·¨¹ÙÖеķ¨¹Ù¡±¡¡£¨judge's¡¡judge£©¹þÂ׶þÊÀÔÚ×î¸ß·¨ÔºÈÎÖ°16Äê¼ä£¬×«Ð´ÁË¡¡613¡¡·ÝÒâ¼ûÊ飬±Èͬʱ´úÆäËûÈκη¨¹Ù¶¼Òª¶à£¬ÆäÖÐÓÐ296·ÝÊÇÒìÒéÒâ¼û£¬±»³ÆΪ¡°Î°´óµÄÒìÒéÕß¡±¡£ÓÐȤµÄÊÇ£¬¹þÂ״󷨹ÙͬʱҲÊÇ1877ÖÁ1911ÄêÆÚ¼äÔÚ×î¸ß·¨ÔºÈÎÖ°µÄÔ¼º²¡¤ÂíЪ¶û¡¤¹þÂ״󷨹ٵÄËï×Ó¡£¹ØÓÚ¹þÂ׶þÊÀµÄÉúƽ£¬¿É²Î¼û£§ÃÀ£§Í¢Ë¹À³¡¤ÑDz¼ÂåÖø£º¡¶Ô¼º²¡¤ÂíЪ¶û¡¤¹þÂ×£ºÎÖÂ×·¨ÔºÎ°´óµÄÒìÒéÕß¡·£¬Ðì°®¹úµÈÒ룬·¨Âɳö°æÉç2004Äê°æ¡£
ÀÕÄáµÂ¡¤ººµÂ£¨Learned¡¡Hand£¬1872¡¡¡ª1961£©£ºÏȺóµ£ÈÎŦԼÖÝÄϲ¿µØÇøÁª°îµØÇø·¨Ôº·¨¹Ù£¨1909¡ª1924£©¼°Áª°îµÚ¶þѲ»ØÉÏËß·¨Ôº·¨¹Ù£¨1924¡ª1961£©£¬ËûѧʶԨ²©£¬î£ÖÇ»úÃô£¬ÔÚÍƶ¯ÇÖȨ·¨¡¢×¨Àû·¨¡¢º£Ê·¨Ó뷴¢¶Ï·¨µÄ·¢Õ¹·½Ãæ×ö³öÁË׿Խ¹±Ï×£¬ÖøÓС¶×ÔÓɵľ«Éñ¡·£¨The¡¡Sprit¡¡of¡¡Liberty£©¡ªÊé¡£ººµÂÓëÂíЪ¶û¡¢»ôķ˹¡¢¿¨¶à×ôÒ»Æ𣬱»²¢³ÆΪÃÀ¹úÀúÊ·ÉÏ×îΰ´óµÄ4Ãû·¨¹Ù£¬¶øÇÒ4ÈËÖÐÖ»ÓÐËûÒ»ÈËûÓгöÈιýÁª°î×î¸ß·¨Ôº´ó·¨¹Ù¡£
ÁªÏ¯´ó·¨¹Ù£¨associate¡¡Justicc£©£ºÔÚÁª°î×î¸ß·¨ÔºÓë¸÷ÖÝ×î¸ß·¨Ôº£¬Ê×ϯ´ó·¨¹ÙÒÔÍâµÄ´ó·¨¹Ù¶¼±»½Ð×öÁªÏ¯´ó·¨¹Ù¡£Ò²ÓÐÈËÒëΪ¡°ÖúÀí´ó·¨¹Ù¡±£¬µ«ÕâÒ»Òë·¨ÈÝÒײúÉúÆçÒå¡£
ÖÖ×åƽȨ´ëÊ©£¨affirmative¡¡action£©£¬Ò²Òë×÷¡°¿Ï¶¨ÐÔÐж¯¡±»ò¡°ÖÖ×å¾ÀÆ«Ðж¯¡±£¬ÏµÃÀ¹úÒ»ÖÖ´øÓв¹³¥ÐÔÖʵÄÉç»áÕþ²ß£¬¸ù¾Ý¿ÏÄáµÏ×Üͳ1£¥1ÄêÇ©ÊðµÄ×ÜͳµÚ10925ºÅÐÐÕþÃüÁî¼°Ëæºó³ǫ̈µÄһϵÁз¨°¸£¬·²ÊÇÒÔÇ°ÔÚÃÀ¹úÉç»áÒòÖÖ×åºÍÐÔ±ðÔÒòÔâÊÜÆçÊÓµÄȺÌ壨ÈçºÚÈË¡¢Ó¡µÚ°²ÈË¡¢ÀÃÀÒáÈË¡¢¸¾Å®µÈ£©£¬ÔÚͬµÈÌõ¼þÏÂÓÐ×ʸñÓÅÏÈÏíÊÜÕþ¸®Õþ²ßµÄ¸£Àû¡£ÕâЩÉç»á¸£Àû°üÀ¨¾ÍÒµ¡¢ÈËѧ¡¢»ñµÃÕþ¸®ºÏͬ¡¢ÏíÊÜÕþ¸®²¹Ìù¡¢ÕùÈ¡½±Ñ§½ð£¬µÈµÈ¡£
²¼Ê²Ë߸ê¶û°¸£¨Bush¡¡v¡£¡¡Gore£©¡¡£º200Äê´óѡʱ£¬ÓÉÓÚ·ðÂÞÀï´ïÖݵļÆƱ¹¤×÷³öÏÖÎÊÌ⣬¹²ºÍµ³ºòÑ¡È˲¼Ê²ÓëÃñÖ÷µ³ºòÑ¡ÈË·¢ÉúÁ˺ܴóÕùÒ飬µ¼ÖÂÃÀ¹ú×Üͳ֮λ¡°ÄѲú¡±£¬¹Ù˾´òµ½Áª°î×î¸ß·¨Ôººó£¬¶àÊý´ó·¨¹ÙÖ§³ÖÁ˲¼Ê²Ò»·½£¬Ê¹²¼Ê²µÃÒÔ˳Àû½øÈË°×¹¬¡£µ«ÊÇ£¬ÓÉÓÚ×î¸ß·¨ÔºÓɹ²ºÍµ³ÈËÈÎÃüµÄ´ó·¨¹ÙÕ¼¾Ý¶àÊý£¬ÇÒÒÔ±£ÊØÅɾӶ࣬Ðí¶àÈËÈÏΪÕâÒ»ÅоöÍêÈ«ÊÇÕþÖβÙ×÷Óëµ³ÅÉÆ«¼ûµÄ²úÎ¶ø·Ç˾·¨²ÃÅеĹ«Õý½á¹û£¬×î¸ß·¨ÔºÒ²Òò´Ë±¥ÊÜÚ¸²¡¡£±¾ÊéµÚ¶þ²¿ÓÃ3ÕÂƪ·ùרÃŽ²ÊöÁ˸ð¸¼þµÄÇ°Òòºó¹û¼°´ó·¨¹ÙÃǵľö²ß¹ý³Ì¡£
µÚÒ»²¿
µÚ1Õ¡¡Áª°îµ³È˵Ä˼ÏëÕ½
µÚ2Õ¡¡ÉƶñÖ®Õù
µÚ3Õ¡¡´ý¾öÎÊÌâ
µÚ4Õ¡¡Èý¼ÝÂí³µ
µÚ5Õ¡¡²©´óÐØ»³
µÚ6Õ¡¡Á÷ÍöÕß¹éÀ´£¿
µÚ7Õ¡¡¸£ÒôÅÉ·´»÷Õ½
µÚ8Õ¡¡¸ñ¸ñ²»Èë
µÚ9Õ¡¡Ïò×ó×ߣ¬ÏòÓÒ×ß
µÚ10Õ¡¡±£ÊØÖ÷Òå½Ú½Ú°ÜÍ˵ÄÒ»Äê
µÚ1Õ¡¡Áª°îµ³È˵Ä˼ÏëÕ½
20ÊÀ¼ÍÖÐÆÚÒÔÀ´£¬ÔÚÏ൱³¤Ò»¶ÎʱÆÚÄÚ£¬ÈËÃDz¢²»Çå³þ˾·¨±£ÊØÖ÷ÒåΪºÎÎï¡£µ«ÊÇ£¬¼¸ºõÊÇÍ»ÈçÆäÀ´£¬ÔÚÂÞÄɵ¡¤Àï¸ù×ÜͳִÕþÆڼ䣬ÓÒÒí·¨¹ÙÓëÂÉʦÃÇͻȻ¿ªÊ¼ÎªÖ®±¼×ߺôº°£¬ÉèÖÃÒé³Ì¡£ËûÃǵÄÄ¿±ê£¬·´Ó³²¢¼ÓÇ¿Á˹²ºÍµ³±£ÊØÅÉÊÆÁ¦µÄÕþÖÎËßÇó¡£
¶ò¶û¡¤ÎÖÂ×ÓÚ1953ÖÁ1969ÄêÈÎÃÀ¹ú×î¸ß·¨ÔºÊ×ϯ´ó·¨¹Ù£¬ÕýÊÇËû¶ÔÃÀ¹ú·¨ÂÉÊ©¼ÓÁ˺ã¾Ã¶øÓÖÖØ´óµÄÓ°Ïì¡£ÔÚ±»µÂ»³ÌØ¡¤D¡¤°¬ÉºÀÍþ¶û£¨Dwight¡¡D¡£Eisenhower£©×ÜͳÈÎÃüΪÊ×ϯ´ó·¨¹Ù֮ǰ£¬ËûÔøÈμÓÀû¸£ÀûÑÇÖÝÖݳ¤£¬±ÏÉúÐÄÔ¸¾ÍÊÇÓëÈÔÊÜijЩÖÝÖ§³ÖµÄÖÖ×åÆçÊÓ´ëÊ©¶·Õùµ½µ×¡£1954ÄêµÄ²¼ÀÊËß½ÌÓýίԱ»á°¸£¨Brown¡¡v¡£Board¡¡of¡¡Education£©Ðû²¼¹«Á¢½ÌÓý»ú¹¹µÄºÚ°×¸ôÀëÎ¥ÏÜ¿ªÊ¼£¬´ó·¨¹ÙÃÇÆëÐÄÐÁ¦£¬ÓÃһϵÁÐÅоö£¨ÆäÖв»ÉÙÊÇÈ«ÔºÒ»ÖÂÒâ¼ûÐγɵÄÅоö£©£¬Óë¹Ù·½¸ôÀëÊÆÁ¦½øÐÐÁ˳¬¹ý12ÄêµÄ¿¹Õù¡£³öÈÎÊ×ϯ´ó·¨¹ÙÆڼ䣬ÎÖÂ×ÔÚÃñȨ°¸¼þ·½ÃæµÄ¼Ç¼ΪËûÓ®µÃÁ˾޴óµÄµÀÒåÓÅÊÆ¡£ÎÖÂ×¼°ÆäͬÁÅ£¬ÓÈÆäÊÇËû×îÇ×ÃܵÄÅóÓѼæÕ½ÓÑСÍþÁ®¡¤J¡£²¼Â×ÄÏ£¨William¡¡J¡£BrennanJr¡££©´ó·¨¹Ù£¬ÔÚ¶à¸öÁìÓò½«·¨ÂÉÍÆÏò¸üÇ÷×ÔÓÉÖ÷ÒåµÄ·½Ïò¡£¿ÉÒÔ˵£¬ÔÚÑÔÂÛ×ÔÓÉ¡¢·¸×ïÏÓÒÉÈËȨÀû£¬ÒÔ¼°Òþ˽ȨµÄÐγɵȷ½Ã棬ÎÖÂ×·¨Ôº¸ÄÔìÁËÃÀ¹ú·¨ÂÉ¡£
²»¿É·ñÈÏ£¬ÎÖÂ×Ò²ÔâÓöÁËÖØÖØ×èÁ¦¡£µ«ÊÇ£¬ÎÖÂ×·¨ÔºµÄÐí¶àÅоöºÜ¿ìÒÔ²»Í¬·½Ê½ÉøÈëÃÀ¹ú·¨Âɵij¤¾Ã¼Ü¹¹Ö®ÖС£Å¦Ô¼Ê±±¨ËßɳÀûÎÄ°¸£¨NewYork¡¡Times¡¡v¡£Sullivan£©Î¬»¤Á˱¨Ö½·¢±íÕùÒéÐÔÑÔÂÛµÄȨÀû£¬Ã×À¼´ïËßÑÇÀûÉ£ÄÇÖÝ°¸£¨Miranda¡¡v¡£Arizona£©Ê÷Á¢ÁËÉóѶ·¸×ïÏÓÒÉÈ˵ÄйæÔò£¬¸ñÀï˹ÎÖ¶ûµÂËß¿µÄùµÒ¸ñÖÝ°¸£¨Griswold¡¡v¡£Connecticut£©Ôò½«ÒÑ»é·ò¸¾µÄ×ÔÓɽÚÓýȨÄÉÈëÒþ˽Ȩ·¶³ë¡ª¡ªËùÓÐÕâЩÅÐÀý£¬Á¬Í¬ÎÖÂ×·¨ÔºÔÚÖÖ×åÎÊÌâÉϵÄÖî¶àÐûʾ£¬ÒѳƵÃÉÏÊ·ÎÞÇ°ÀýµÄ³É¾Í¡£
Àí²éµÂ¡¤M¡£Äá¿ËËÉÖ®ËùÒÔÓ®µÃ×Üͳ´ó룬ºÜ´óÒ»²¿·ÖÔÒòÔÚÓÚËû³Ðŵ½«Ï÷Èõ×î¸ß·¨ÔºÖеÄ×ÔÓÉÅÉÊÆÁ¦¡£ËæºóÈýÄ꣬ËûÐÒÔ˵ػñµÃÁËËÄ´ÎÌáÃû´ó·¨¹ÙµÄ»ú»á£¬¶Ô˾·¨ÏµÍ³µÄµ÷ÕûÖÕÓÚ¿ªÊ¼ÁË¡£¾Äá¿ËËÉÌáÃû£¬ÎÖÂס¤E¡£²®¸ñ³ÉΪÎÖÂ׵ļÌÈÎÕߣ¬È»¶ø£¬ÔÚ²®¸ñ·¨Ôº£¬×î¸ß·¨ÔºÔÚijЩÁìÓò·´¶ø±ÈÒÔÇ°±íÏֵøüΪ×ÔÓÉ¡£·¨ÔºÔÊÐí¶¯ÓÃУ³µÊµÏÖºÚ°×ͬ³Ë£»ÔÚÀ©´óÑÔÂÛ×ÔÓÉ·¶Î§ÉÏÉõÖÁ³¬¹ýÁËɳÀûÎÄ°¸£»Ç¿ÁîÄá¿ËËɽ»³öË®ÃżÒô´ø£»ÉõÖÁ»¹ÔÚÒ»¶ÎʱÆÚÄÚÍ£Ö¹ÁËÈ«ÃÀµÄËÀÐÌÖ´ÐС£ÂÞÒÁËßΤµÂ°¸ÕâÒ»Éæ¼°¶é̥Ȩ°¸¼þµÄÅоö½á¹û£¬ËµÃ÷×î¸ß·¨ÔºÈÔÆ«Ïò×ÔÓÉÖ÷Ò壬¸Ã°¸ÅоöÒâ¼ûÒÔ72µÄƱÊýͨ¹ý£¬Äá¿ËËÉÈÎÃüµÄËÄÃû´ó·¨¹ÙÖУ¬ÓÐÈýÃû£¨²®¸ñ¡¢ÁõÒ×˹¡¤F¡£±«Íþ¶û£¬ºÍ¹þÀA¡£²¼À³¿ËÃÅ£©Õ¾ÔÚ¶àÊýÒâ¼ûÒ»·½¡£Ö»ÓÐÂ׿ü˹ÌØÓëÔ¼º²¡¤F¡£¿ÏÄáµÏ£¨John¡¡F¡£Kennedy£©ÈÎÃüµÄ°ÝÂס¤R¡£»³ÌØ£¨ByronR¡£White£©³ÖÒìÒéÒâ¼û¡£
Õû¸ö1950ÖÁ1970Äê´ú£¬¼´Ê¹Ïñ»³ÌØÓ벨ÌØ¡¤Ë¹Í¼¶ûÌØ£¨Potter¡¡Stewart£©ÕâÑùµÄ±£ÊØÅÉ£¬¹ÛµãÒ²ÓëËûÃǵÄ×ÔÓÉÅÉͬʲî±ð²»´ó¡£±£ÊØÅɲ»Ô¸¿´µ½µÄÖ»ÊÇ£¬½ö½öÒòΪ¾¯²ìûÓнøÐÐÊÂÇ°¸æ½ë£¬·¸×ïÏÓÒÉÈ˾ͱ»Ðû¸æÎÞ×ËûÃǸüÔ¸ÒâÏÞÖƶԹýÈ¥ÖÖ×åÆçÊÓÕþ²ß²ÉÈ¡µÄ²¹¾È´ëÊ©£»ÇãÏòÓÚÈÃÃñÑ¡¹ÙÔ±¸ºÔðÕû¸öÕþ¸®µÄ×éÖ¯ºÍÔËת¡£¿ÉÒÔ˵£¬×ÔÓÉÅÉÒÑÔÚÐí¶àÖØ´ó·¨ÂÉÒéÌâÉÏ»ñµÃÁËѹµ¹ÐÔµÄʤÀû£¬ÆäÒâÒåÉõÖÁ³¬Ô½ÁË×î¸ß·¨ÔºµÄÅоö±¾Éí¡£ÎÖÂ×·¨Ôº¸Ä±äÁËÕû¸öÃÀ¹úµÄ·¨ÂÉÎÄ»¯£¬ÕâÒ»µãÔÚ¸÷´óѧµÄ·¨Ñ§ÔºÌåÏÖµÃÓÈΪÃ÷ÏÔ¡£
ÂÞÄɵ¡¤Àï¸ùÔÚ1980Äê´óÑ¡Öл÷°Ü¼ªÃס¤¿¨Ìغó£¬Ò®Â³·¨Ñ§Ôº¶ÙʱÏÝÈ뱯âúÆø·Õ¡£ÄÇÒ»Ì죬˹µÙ·Ò¡¤¿¨À²¼À×˹£¨Steven¡¡Calabresi£©µÄÇÖȨ·¨½ÌÊڸɴàÈ¡ÏûÁËÊڿΣ¬Óë´ó¼ÒÌÖÂÛÆð¹úÄÚÕþ¾Ö¡£Õû¸ö½ÌÊÒµÄÆø·ÕÏÔµÃÀ§»ó¶øµÍÃÔ¡£×îºó£¬½ÌÊÚÇë¾ÅÊ®ÃûÒ»Ä꼶ѧÉúÒÔ¾ÙÊÖ·½Ê½±í̬£¬¿´¿´µ½µ×ÓжàÉÙÈË»áͶƱ¸ø¿¨ÌØ£¬ÓÖÓжàÉÙÈË»áͶƱ¸øÀï¸ù¡£½á¹û±íÃ÷£¬Ö»Óп¨À²¼À×˹ÓëÁíÒ»ÃûѧÉúͶƱ֧³ÖÁ˹²ºÍµ³¡£
ÕâÒ»·ÇÕýʽͶƱ¹ý³Ì£¬ÕýºÃ½ÒʾÁ˵±Ê±¸÷´ó·¨Ñ§ÔºµÄÆÕ±é״̬¡£½ÌÊÚÃǾø´ó¶àÊýÊÇ×ÔÓÉÅÉ£¬·´Ó³³öÕû¸ö·¨ÂÉְҵȺÌåÒÑÔÚÕâЩÄê·¢ÉúÁ˺ܴó±ä»¯¡£ÎÖÂ×Óë²®¸ñ·¨ÔºµÄ×óÇãÅоö£¬½¥½¥³ÉΪ¸ßУÄÚµÄÕýͳѧ˵£¬·¨ÔºÔÚÖÖ×åƽȨ´ëÊ©Óë¶é̥ȨÉϵÄÅоöÒâ¼û£¬Öð²½±»·¨Ñ§ÔºÊ¦ÉúÆÕ±é½ÓÊܵ«ÊÇ£¬¼ÈÈ»¹úÄÚÕþÖÎÒѾÕûÌåÓÒÇ㣬·¨Ñ§Ôº×ÔÈ»ÎÞ·¨ÐÒÃ⣬¿¨À²¼À×˹µÈС¹ÉѧÉúÊÔͼ¼Ó¹ÌÕâÒ»ÓÒÇãÇ÷ÊÆ¡£¿¨À²¼À×˹µÄÅóÓÑÀÀû²®Âü£¨Lee¡¡Liberman£©ºÍ´÷ά¡¤Âó½ðÍÐʲ£¨David¡¡McIntosh£©¸Õ¸Õ´ÓҮ³ѧԺ±ÏÒµ£¬¸°Ö¥¼Ó¸ç´óѧ·¨Ñ§Ôº¼ÌÐøÉîÔì¡£¿¨À²¼À×˹¾ö¶¨Í¬ÕâÁ½ÈË×齨һ¸öÉçÍÅ£¬×÷ΪÔÚ·¨ÂÉ˼Ïë½çÌÖÂÛÓë¹Ä´µ±£ÊØÖ÷ÒåµÄÕóµØ¡£ËûÃÇÔ±¾±¸Ï¼¸¸öÉçÍÅÃû³Æ£¬²¢´òËã½è´ËìÅҫѧʶ£¬Á½¸öÃû³Æ·Ö±ðÊÇ·µÂά¸ñ¡¤·ë¡¤Ã×Ôó˹лᣨThe¡¡Ludwig¡¡von¡¡Mises¡¡Society£©ºÍÑÇÀúɽ´ó¡¤±È¿Ë¶ûлᣨThe¡¡Alexander¡¡Bickel¡¡Society£©¡£ËûÃÇ×îÖÕ»¹ÊÇÑ¡ÔñÁËÒ»¸ö¸ü¾ß¹ÅµäÒâζµÄÃû³Æ¡ª¡ªÁª°îµ³ÈËлᣬÒÔЧ·ÂÄÇЩΪÅú×¼1787ÄêÏÜ·¨¶ø±¼×ߺôÓõµÄ°®¹úÏÈÏÍ¡£¿¨À²¼À×˹ÔÚҮ³·¨Ñ§ÔºµÄµ¼Ê¦ÊÇ£¿²®ÌØ¡¤²©¿Ë£¨RobertBork£©½ÌÊÚ¡£ÀÀû²®ÂüºÍ´÷ά¡¤Âó½ðÍÐʲÔÚÖ¥¼Ó¸ç´´Á¢ÁËÁª°îµ³ÈËлá·Ö²¿£¬²¢Æ¸ÇëÁËÊ×λѧÊõ¹ËÎÊ£¬Ò»Î»Ãû½Ð°²¶«Äþ¡¤Ë¹¿¨ÀûÑǵĽÌÊÚ¡£
¾¡¹Ü¹²ºÍµ³ÔÚ¹úÄÚÕþÖÎÑ¡¾ÙÖÐÕ¼¾ÝÓÅÊÆ£¬µ«±£ÊØÅÉ·¨Ñ§ÉçÍŵķ¢Õ¹È´Î´Äܱ£³Öͬ²½¡£ÕâһʱÆÚ£¬×ÔÓÉÖ÷ÒåÈÔÊǸ÷´ó·¨Ñ§ÔºµÄÖ÷Á÷ÒâʶÐÎ̬£¬¶øÇÒ´ú±í×ÅÒ»¹É¸ù»ùÀο¿µÄÖÇʶÁ¦Á¿¡£1960Äê´ú£¬Ò®Â³´óѧÓëÆäËüԺУµÄ×ÔÓÉÅÉѧÕß·×·×ÔÚ¸÷À෨ѧÆÀÂÛÉÏ׫дÎÄÕ£¬ÎªÎÖÂ×·¨ÔºµÄÅоöÌṩÀíÂÛÖ§³Ö¡£µ«µ½ÁË°ËÊ®Äê´ú£¬Ëæ×Å¿¨ÌØÐÐÕþ·ÖÖ§µÄʧ°Ü£¬Ðí¶à´«Í³ÃñÖ÷µ³ÈË·×·×À뿪·¨ÂÉʵ¼ù²¿ÃÅ£¬Í¶ÉíÓÚÅúÅз¨Ñ§Ñо¿Ô˶¯£¨Critical¡¡Legal¡¡Studies£©¡£ÅúÅз¨Ñ§Ñо¿ÊÜÒâ´óÀûÂí¿Ë˼Ö÷ÒåÕß°²¶«Äᡤ¸ñÀ¼Ä·À³£¨Antonio¡¡Gramsci£©¡¢·¨¹úºóÏÖ´ú½á¹¹ÓïÑÔѧ¼ÒÑÅ¿Ë¡¤µÂÀï´ï£¨Jacques¡¡Derrida£©µÈ˼Ïë¼ÒµÄÖø×÷Ó°Ïì½Ï´ó£¬ÈÏΪ·¨Âɲ¢·ÇÒ»Ì×ÓɺËÐĹæÔò¹¹½¨µÄÌåϵ£¬¸ü²»¿ÉÄÜ´´Á¢Ò»¸ö¸üΪ¹«Æ½¹«ÕýµÄÉç»á¡£¸üÓÐÉõÕߣ¬¸É´àÈÏΪ·¨ÂɾÍÊÇÇ¿ÕßѹÆÈÈõÕߵŤ¾ß¡£ÎÞÂÛÕâÌ×ÀíÂÛÓкÎÓŵ㣬ÅúÅз¨Ñ§Ñо¿Ê¼ÖÕÒÔÆä׿¶û²»Èº¡¢Àë¾ÅѵÀµÄ¹ÛµãÓÎÀëÓÚÖ÷Á÷·¨Ñ§ÀíÂÛÖ®Í⣬ÆäÀíÂÛÉϵļ«¶Ë»³ÒÉÖ÷ÒåÓë¹ÛµãÉϵĹý¼¤Ö÷Ò壬ʹÁ¢·¨ÕßÓë·¨¹Ù¶¼¶ÔËü¾´¶øÔ¶Ö®¡£´Ëʱ£¬·¨Ñ§ÔºµÄÖ÷Á÷ÁìÓòÖÕÓÚÏòÕýÅ·¢Õ¹µÄ±£ÊØÖ÷Ò峨¿ªÁË´óÃÅ¡£
ÕýÊÇÁª°îµ³ÈËлᷴӳ²¢Íƶ¯Á˱£ÊØÖ÷ÒåÔ˶¯µÄ·¢Õ¹¡£¸ÃлáÓÚ1982Äê¾ÙÐÐÁ˵ÚÒ»´ÎÈ«¹ú»áÒ飬²¢ÓÚµÚ¶þÄêÔÚ³¬¹ý12¸ö·¨Ñ§ÔºÉèÁ¢Á˷ֻᡣÒâʶµ½¸ÃлáÔÚ֪ʶ½çµÄDZÔÚÓ°ÏìÖ®ºó£¬ÖîÈçÔ¼º²¡¤M¡£°ÂÁÖ»ù½ð»á£¨John¡¡M¡£Olin¡¡Foundation£©Óë˹¿·ò»ù½ð»á£¨Scaife¡¡Foundation£©Ö®ÀàµÄ±£ÊØÍÅÌåÔÞÖúËûÃÇÔÚ»ªÊ¢¶ÙÉèÁ¢ÁËÈ«ÈÕÖư칫ÊÒ¡£Àï¸ùÐÐÕþ·ÖÖ§Ò²¿ªÊ¼ÒÔ˾·¨ÌáÃûµÄÐÎʽ£¬×ÅÊÖÎüÄÉÁª°îµ³ÈËлá³ÉԱΪÆä·þÎñ¡£ÆäÖÐ×îÖøÃûµÄÁ½¸öÀý×ÓÊDz©¿ËºÍ˹¿¨ÀûÑÇ¡££¨²©¿ËºÍ˹¿¨ÀûÑǶ¼ÓÚ1982Äê½øÈë¸çÂ×±ÈÑÇÌØÇøѲ»ØÉÏËß·¨Ôº¹¤×÷¡£¿¨À²¼À×˹Ôò³ÉΪÎ÷±±´óѧ·¨Ñ§ÔºµÄ½ÌÊÚ¡££©
1980Äê´úÔçÆÚ£¬³õ´´Ê±ÆÚµÄÄêÇáÁª°îµ³ÈËлá³ÉÔ±²¢·ÇÖ»ÏëÖØÉê±£ÊØÖ÷ÒåÏȱ²ÃǵÄÕ½ÂÔ¡£ÄÇЩÔøÓëÎÖÂ×·¨ÔºÄڵļ«¶Ë×ÔÓÉÅɼ¤ÁÒ¶·Õù¹ýµÄÏÈÐÐÕߣ¬¸üÔ¸°ÑËûÃǵĶ·Õù³ÆΪ¡°Ë¾·¨¿ËÖÆÖ÷Ò塱Ó롰˾·¨Äܶ¯Ö÷Ò塱µÄ¶Ô¿¹¡£Ë¹Í¼¶ûÌØÓëÔ¼º²¡¤ÂíЪ¶û¡¤¹þÂ׶þÊÀµÈ±£ÊØÅɴ󷨹٣¬Ò»Ö±ÊÇÎÖÂ×·¨ÔºÅоöµÄÒìÒéÕߣ¬ËûÃǵĺËÐÄÀíÄîÊǴ󷨹ÙÃÇӦ˳ӦÃñÒ⣬½ßÁ¦µÖÖƵ߸²³ÉÎÄ·¨»ò·ñ¾öÐÐÕþ·ÖÖ§Õþ²ßµÄÓÕ»ó¡£µ«ÊÇ£¬±£ÊØÅÉÐÂÉú´úÃǵÄÄ¿±ê¸üΪ´óµ¨¡£ÊÂʵÉÏ£¬ËûÃDz¢²»ÐÅ·î˾·¨¿ËÖÆÖ÷Ò壬¶øÊÇÍƳçÊôÓÚ×Ô¼ºµÄÒ»Ì×˾·¨Äܶ¯Ö÷Òå¡£ËûÃÇÉîÐÅ£¬ÏÜ·¨ÔÚÐí¶àÖØ´óÎÊÌâÉ϶¼±»Îó¶ÁÁË£¬±ØÐëͨ¹ý·¨Ôº¼ÓÒÔ¾ÀÕý¡£
Ëæ×ÅÂÞÄɵ¡¤Àï¸ùµÄµ±Ñ¡£¬±£ÊØÖ÷Òå˼ÏëÔÚ»ªÊ¢¶ÙÖÁ¹ØÖØÒªµÄһλÐÂÖ§³ÖÕß³öÏÖÁË¡£Àï¸ùÔÚ¾ºÑ¡Æڼ䣬Ôø³Ðŵ½«Í¨¹ý¼õÉÙ²ÆÕþÔ¤ËãÏ÷ÈõÁª°îÕþ¸®È¨Á¦¡£Ðí¶àÁª°îµ³ÈËлá³ÉÔ±Ò²ÔÚÑ°ÇóʵÏÖÉÏÊöÄ¿±êµÄ·¨ÂÉ·¾¶¡£1905Ä꣬×î¸ß·¨ÔºÔøÔÚÂå¿ËÄÉËßŦԼÖÝ°¸£¨Lochner¡¡v¡£NewYork£©µÄÅоöÖÐÐû²¼£¬ÎªÃæ°ü×÷·»¹¤ÈËÏÞ¶¨×î¸ß¹¤Ê±µÄ·¨ÂÉÎ¥ÏÜ£¬ÒòΪËüÇÖ·¸Á˱£»¤¡°×ÔÓÉ¡±Óë¡°²Æ²ú¡±µÄÏÜ·¨µÚÊ®ËÄÐÞÕý°¸ÏµÄÆõÔ¼×ÔÓÉ¡£µ½ÁË1940Äê´ú£¬ÂÞ˹¸£ÈÎÃüÖÁ×î¸ß·¨ÔºµÄ´ó·¨¹ÙÃÇÈ«ÃæÅúÅÐÁË¡°Âå¿ËÄÉ°¸Ê±´ú¡±£¬ÒÔÖÁÓÚÖ®ºóÊýÊ®Ä꣬¾ÓȻûÓÐÒ»¸öÈËÔÙÈ¥¿¼ÂǶÔÁª°îÕþ¸®È¨Á¦·¶Î§Ê©ÒÔÏÜ·¨ÉϵÄÏÞÖÆ¡£¶øÀï¸ùʱ´ú£¬±£ÊØÅÉ¿ªÊ¼¶ÔÁª°îÕþ¸®¸ÉÉæ¸÷ÖÝÊÂÎñµÄÐÐΪ½øÐÐÖÊÒÉ£¬²¢Ðû³ÆÕâÀàÐÐΪ´ó²¿·Ö¶¼ÊÇÎ¥Ïܵġ££¨1982Ä꣬Áª°îµ³ÈËлáÑûÇëÖ¥¼Ó¸ç´óѧ·¨Ñ§Ôº½ÌÊÚÀí²éµÂ¡¤°®ÆÃ˹̹£¨Richard¡¡Epstein£©ÔÚҮ³·¢±íÁËÔÞ³ÉÂå¿ËÄÉËßŦԼÖÝ°¸µÄÑݽ²£¬ÒÔÖ§³ÖÉÏÊöÐж¯¡££©µ±Àï¸ù×ÜͳÌá³ö¹ú»á¡°²»Ó¦¸Ã¡±Í¨¹ýÕâÀà¹æ¶¨Ê±£¬Áª°îµ³ÈËлáÂõµÃ²½×ÓÈ´¸ü´ó£¬ËûÃÇÌá³ö£¬¸ù¾ÝÏÜ·¨£¬¹ú»á¸ù±¾¾Í¡°ÎÞȨ¡±ÄÇô×ö¡£
°£µÂΡ¤Ã×˹ÈýÊÀ£¨Edwin¡¡Meese¡¡¢ó£©ÔÚÀï¸ùµÄµÚ¶þ¸öÈÎÆÚÄÚÔøÈÎÁª°î˾·¨²¿³¤¡£ÎªÁ˶ÔÎÖÂ×Óë²®¸ñʱ´ú½øÐб£ÊØÖ÷ÒåÅúÅУ¬ËûÌá³öÁËÃûΪ¡°ÔÖ¼Ö÷Ò巨ѧ£¨juris¡¡prudence¡¡of¡¡originalintention£©¡±µÄ¸ÙÁìÐԹ۵㡣ÔÚËû¿´À´£¬ÏÜ·¨ÉϵÄÒ»×ÖÒ»¾ä´ú±í×ÅÏÜ·¨Æð²ÝÕßÃǵÄËù˼ËùÏë¡£¾ÍÏñ¡°ÔÖ¼Ö÷ÒåÕß¡±£¨originalist£©µÄ´ú±íÈËÎïÂÞ²®ÌØ¡¤²©¿ËÌá³öµÄ£¬¡°ÖÆÏÜÕ߶Ô×ÔÓɵÄ×·ÇóÓ¦µ±ÊÇÏÜ·¨Îı¾·ÖÎöµÄΩһºÏ·¨Ç°Ìá¡£¡